The Mind and the Brain (51 page)

merely think about practicing it
: Pascual-Leone, A., Dang, N., Cohen, L. G., et al. 1995. Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills.
Journal of Neurophysiology, 74
, pp. 1037–1045.

Merzenich’s group was already suggesting
: Merzenich, Recanzone, & Jenkins, 1990.

simulated writer’s cramp in two adult owl monkeys
: Byl, N. N., Merzenich, M. M., & Jenkins, W. M. 1996. A primate genesis model of focal dystonia and repetitive strain injury. I. Learning-induced dedifferentiation of the representation of the hand in the primary somatosensory cortex in adult monkeys.
Neurology
, 47, pp. 508–520.
remap their own somatosensory cortex
: Byl, N. N., & McKenzie, A. 2000. Treatment effectiveness for patients with a history of repetitive hand use and focal hand dystonia: A planned, prospective follow-up study.
Journal of Hand Therapy, 13
, pp. 289–301.

85 to 98
percent improvement in fine motor skills
: Byl, N. N., Nagarajan, S., & McKenzie, A. 2000. Effect of sensorimotor training on structure and function in three patients with focal hand dystonia.
Society for Neuroscience Abstracts
.

professional musicians with focal hand dystonia
: Candia, V., Elbert, T., Altenmuller, E., et al. 1999. Constraint-induced movement therapy for focal hand dystonia in musicians.
Lancet, 353
, p. 42.

walk in an ever-more constrained way
: Merzenich, Byl, & Wang, 1996, p. 53.

Tinnitus,
or ringing in the ears, is characterized
: Muhlnickel, W., Elbert, T., Taub, E., & Flor, H. 1998. Reorganization of auditory cortex in tinnitus.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
, 95, pp. 10340–10343.

cortex that used to control the movement of the elbow and shoulder
: Nudo, R. J., Wise, B. M., SiFuentes, F., & Milliken, G.W. 1996. Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct.
Science, 272
, pp. 1791–1794.

cortex that used to register when the left arm was touched
: Pons, Garraghty, & Ommaya, 1991.

visual cortex that has been reprogrammed to receive and process tactile inputs
: Sadato, N., Pascual-Leone, A., Grafman, J., et al. 1998. Neural networks for Braille reading by the blind.
Brain, 121
, pp. 1213–1229.

“
most remarkable observations made in recent neuroscience history
”: Jones, E. G. 2000. Cortical and subcortical contributions to activity-dependent plasticity in primate somatosensory cortex.
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23
, pp. 1–37.

“
little-attended exercises are of limited value
”: Merzenich & Jenkins, 1993, p. 102.

C
HAPTER
S
EVEN

dyslexia, which affects an estimated 5 to 17 percent:
Temple, E., Poldrack, R. A., Protopapas, A., et al. 2000. Disruption of the neural response to rapid acoustic stimuli in dyslexia: Evidence from functional MRI.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97
, pp. 13907–13912.

processing certain speech sounds
—
fast ones:
Tallal, P. 2000. The science of literacy: From the laboratory to the classroom.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America., 97
, pp. 2402–2404; Poldrack, R. A., Temple, E., Protopapas, A., Nagarajan, S., Tallal, P., Merzenich, M., & Gabrieli, J. D. 2001. Relations between the neural bases of dynamic auditory processing and phonological processing: Evidence from fMRI.
Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13
, pp. 687–697.

a failure to assign neurons to particular phonemes:
Temple, E., Poldrack, R. A., & Salidis, J., et al. 2001. Disrupted neural responses to phonological and orthographic processing in dyslexic children: An fMRI study.
Neuroreport
, 12, pp. 299–307.

“how we might develop a way to train the brain to process sounds correctly”:
Tallal, P., Merzenich, M. M., Miller, S., & Jenkins, W. 1998. Language learning impairments: Integrating basic science, technology, and remediation.
Experimental Brain Research, 123
, pp. 210–219.

produce modified speech tapes:
Nagarajan, S. S., Wang, X., Merzenich, M. M., et al. 1998. Speech modification algorithms used
for training language learning-impaired children.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering, 6
, pp. 257–268.

the Rutgers and UCSF teams reported their results in the journal
Science: Tallal, P., Miller, S. L., Bedi, G., et al. 1996. Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech.
Science, 271
, pp. 81–84; Merzenich, M. M., Jenkins, W. M., Johnston, P., et al. 1996. Temporal processing deficits of language-learning impaired children ameliorated by training.
Science, 271
, pp. 77–81.

Merzenich, Tallal, and colleagues had teamed up with John Gabrieli:
Temple, Poldrack, & Protopapas, et al., 2000.

other scientists:
Beauregard, M., Levesque, J., & Bourgouin, P. 2001 Neural correlates of conscious self-regulation of emotion.
Journal of Neuroscience
, 21(18), p. RC165; Paquette, V., Levesque, J., et al. 2003. “Change the mind and you change the brain”: effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on the neural correlates of spider phobia.
Neuroimage
, 18(2), pp. 401–409; Levesque. J., Eugene, F., et al. 2003. Neural circuitry underlying voluntary suppression of sadness.
Biological Psychiatry
, 53(6), pp. 502–510.

Applied mindfulness could change neuronal circuitry:
Schwartz, 1998.

this disease strikes:
Kadesjo, B., & Gillberg, C. 2000. Tourette’s disorder: Epidemiology and comorbidity in primary school children.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39
, pp. 548–555.

is a biological link between OCD and Tourette’s:
State, M.W., Pauls, D. L., & Leckman, J.F. 2001. Tourette’s syndrome and related disorders.
Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 10
, pp. 317–331.

The defining symptoms of Tourette’s
: For details, see the excellent textbook, Leckman, J., & Cohen, D. J. 1999.
Tourette’s syndrome: Tics, obsessions, compulsions: Development, psychopathology and clinical care
. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

The two diseases also seem to share a neural component:
Stern, E., Silbersweig, D. A., Chee, K. Y., et al. 2000. A functional neuroanatomy of tics in Tourette syndrome.
Archives of General Psychology, 57,
pp. 741–748.

central role in switching from one behavior to another:
Leckman, J.F., & Riddle, M. A. 2000. Tourette’s syndrome: When habit-forming systems form habits of their own?
Neuron, 28,
pp. 349–354.
appeared in 1825:
Kushner, H. I. 2000.
A cursing brain? The histories of Tourette syndrome.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Drugs typically reduce tic symptoms:
Leckman & Cohen, 1999.

That leaves behavioral treatment:
Piacentini, J., & Chang, S. 2001. Behavioral treatments for Tourette syndrome and tic disorders: State of the art. In: Cohen, D. J., Jankovic, J., & Goetz, C. G. (Eds.)
Advances in neurology: Tourette syndrome, 85.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, pp. 319–332.

in a study based on reasoning:
Peterson, B. S., Skudlarski, P., Anderson, A.W., et al. 1998. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of tic suppression in Tourette syndrome.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 55
, pp. 326–333.

Patients are trained to recognize and label tic urges
: Piacentini & Chang, 2001, p. 328.

“simply as events in the mind”
: Teasdale, J. D. 1999. Metacognition, mindfulness and the modification of mood disorders.
Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy
, 6, pp. 146–155.

in the titles of their research papers
: Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z., & Williams, J. M. G. 1995. How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse, and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help?
Behavior Research & Therapy, 33
, pp. 25–39.

Teasdale named his approach
: Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., et al. 2000. Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.
Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 68
, pp. 615–623.

cognitive therapy, too, had the power to prevent relapses
: Scott, J., Teasdale, J. D., Paykel, E. S., et al. 2000. Effects of cognitive therapy on psychological symptoms and social functioning in residual depression.
British Journal of Psychiatry, 177
, pp. 440–446; Paykel, E. S., et al. 1999. Prevention of relapse in residual depression by cognitive therapy.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 56
, pp. 829–835
Teasdale thought he knew why
: Teasdale, J. D. 1999. Emotional processing, three modes of mind and the prevention of relapse in depression.
Behavior Research & Therapy, 37 Supplement
1, pp. 53–77.

interpersonal therapy:
Brody, A., Saxena, S., Stoessal, P., et al. 2001. Regional brain metabolic changes in patients with major depression treated with either paroxetine or interpersonal therapy.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 58
, pp. 631–640.

how navigation expertise might change the brain:
Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Frith, C. 2000. Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97
, pp. 4398–4403.

exploring the cellular and molecular mechanisms:
Van Praag, Kempermann, & Gage, 2000.

the actual creation of new neurons:
Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. 1999. New nerve cells for the adult brain.
Scientific American, 280
, pp. 48–53.

the formation and survival of new neurons:
Kempermann, G., Kuhn, H. G., & Gage, F. H. 1997. More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment.
Nature, 386
, pp. 493–495.

directly related to learning tasks
: Gould, E., Beylin, A., Tanapat, P., Reeves, A., & Shors, T. J. 1999. Learning enhances adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal formation.
Nature Neuroscience, 2
, pp. 260–265.

exercising on a wheel:
van Praag, H., Christie, B. R., Sejnowski, T. J., & Gage, F. H. 1999. Running enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96
, pp. 13427–13431; van Praag, H., Kempermann, G., & Gage, F. H. 1999. Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus.
Nature Neuroscience 2
, pp. 266–270.

newly generated neurons:
Shors, T. J., Miesegaes, G., et al. 2001. Neurogenesis in the adult is involved in the formation of trace memories.
Nature
, 410, pp. 372–376.

neurogenisis occurs in the adult human hippocampus:
Eriksson, P. S., Perfilieva, E., Bjork-Ericksson, T., et al. 1998. Neurogenisis in the adult human hippocampus.
Nature Medicine, 4
, pp. 1313–1317.

“it is for the science of the future”
: Cajal, S. R., & Mays R.T. 1959. Degeneration and regeneration of the nervous system. New York: Hafner, p. 750.

C
HAPTER
E
IGHT

“actual philosophy”
: Born, M. 1968.
My life and my views
. New York: Scribner.

“from the object”
: Heisenberg, W. 1958. The representation of nature in contemporary physics.
Daedalus
, 87, pp. 95–108.

my second book
: Schwartz, J. M., Gottlieb, A., & Buckley, P. 1998.
A return to innocence
. New York: Regan Books/HarperCollins.

a book published the year before
: Chalmers, D. 1996.
The conscious mind: In search of a fundamental theory
. New York: Oxford University Press.

a justice on the Australian Supreme Court
: Hodgson, D. 1991.
The mind matters: Consciousness and choice in a quantum world
. New York: Oxford University Press.

purchased Stapp’s 1993 book
: Stapp H. 1993.
Mind, matter and quantum mechanics
. New York: Springer-Verlag.

“not coercive”
: James, 1983, p. 1177.

“the feeling of effort”
: Ibid., p. 1142.

“active element”
: Ibid., p. 428.

“the brain is an instrument of possibilities”
: Ibid., p. 144.

“the ordinary laws of physics and chemistry”
: Wigner, E. 1969. Are we machines?
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 113
, pp. 95–101.

“as important as that of Newton”
: Motz, L., & Weaver, J. H. 1989.
The story of physics
. New York Perseus, pp. 194–195.

Planck’s talk:
Zeilinger, A. 2000. The quantum centennial.
Nature, 408
, pp. 639–641.

“a deep understanding of chemistry”
: Greenberger, D. M. 1986.